The German Interior Minister Otto Schily announced that immigration Essay

The German Interior Minister Otto Schily announced that immigration rules would be relaxed to facilitate the entry of Indian sof - Essay Example Nevertheless, in the previous year German provided 10,000 green cards to technology professionals, among them being Indians. Though such an action would pose many security threats, German was ready to improve on their security so that no terrorist can pose as a soft ware expert to be issued with a visa. However, German portrays a good example of immigration and trade services globally, with host countries having to relax on some of the restrictive visa issues in order to gain a competitive advantage as other countries. However, one of the main issues that worry citizens in many of the hoist countries is likelihood of immigrants causing job shortage in the host country. Though India is a developing country, its successive growth in information technology and software is attributed to the fact that they outsource their services to multinational firms globally, but at a reliable cost. However, the United States remains the major country that receives a majority number of software expert ise from India. According to BBC news (2000), the United States had already proposed that it would increase the experts’ visas to 200,000, this shows that the rate of demand for the Indian software expertise is very high. Therefore, this third world country is has a comparative advantage in terms of software expertise. ... that has prevailed across the world, where countries mainly the developing countries have to contend with trade in services, as their skilled manpower is lured my developed countries, in the form of relaxed immigration rules and other incentives. Trade in services and immigration Trade and immigration are becoming connected since, for instance, trading in goods and services, and investing is expanding due to the low costs of globalization, transport, and availability of information. The result of this is an increased urge to study, work, and travel, or even to live abroad. When people move across borders and supply services in another country, this is regarded as trade. According to Pecoud (2007, p. 14), â€Å"trade and migration are interconnected in a globalized economy and that pressures towards liberalization may one day promote a narrow trade.† The increase of immigrants in developing countries has greatly increased with time. Immigration of skilled labor is encouraged by the developed countries and restrictive measures are minimized in order to enable these experts to venture into the country. Indeed, various benefits accrue to developed countries, with the major one being the use of immigrating human capital to advance their production capacity (Kuznar, n.d, p. 12). The immigration promotion of skilled labor is as a result of lack of a skilled workforce in these countries or the need to compete with other countries. If country A has more labor than country B, then it is only wise for country A to send labor to country B, via immigration, which is a direct method, or indirectly through exporting of goods. Thus, the movement of goods can substitute for the movement of people to various countries. In developed countries, prices of goods and services, as well as

Mergers and acquisition Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Mergers and acquisition - Essay Example Such companies resort to such strategy for companies to have powers over suppliers, buyers or competitors, to benefit from experience curve effects and to reduce unit costs, to turn around opportunities as in the case of Morrison’s and Safeway, as a response to turbulence, technological or regulatory and as sometimes as response to acquisitions by competitors. Reality however has a different way of validating what managers and chief executive officers believe about the prospects of merger or acquisition. It is found through surveys that not all mergers deliver the value added that is expected. This is confirmed by www.olin.wustl.edu/discovery/feature in its article on Making Mergers Work. Olin School of Business (n.d.) said that whether judged by the growth of shareholder value or by the new company’s performance within its industry, the results of mergers and acquisitions have been disappointing. It the suggested to consider the AOL-Time Warner mismatch and the fiasco at WorldCom, a company that failed to integrate its many acquisitions. It further mentioned a 1999 study published in the Harvard Business Review, which found that only 21 percent of acquisitions in several industries could be viewed as clear successes. Olin School of business (n.d.) telling every body that in other words, nearly 80 percent of those acquisitions were either disappointing or clear failures. It then asked the question: â€Å"How can such a commonly practiced, promising business strategy so often end in disaster?† The Harvard Business Review survey, according to Olin School of Business (n.d.) from CFOs surveys conducted from the Forbes 50 revealed the top 10 roadblocks to achieving synergies from their answers as follows: The Olin School of Business (n.d.) then mentioned that The Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) Foundation was intrigued

Growth Strategy To Be Market Leader In Retail Marketing Essay

Growth Strategy To Be Market Leader In Retail Marketing Essay Mydin Mohamed Holdings Bhd is a local business organization in retail industry under the leadership of chief executive, Datuk Ameer Ali Mydin. The business starts its operation since 1957 in retail and wholesale. In the economic environment, Mydin face challenge from other key players such as Giant, Tesco, Carrefour and Econsave. Currently Mydin has 4 hypermarkets and its total stores are 55 which located at Klang Valley, Terengganu, Kota Bharu, Seremban, Nilai, Johor, Alor Setar, Melaka, Penang, Pahang and Kelantan. To compete, the company plans to expand their business and grow organically. Mydin imposed low pricing strategies and provide economically price goods to its customers. Surely, the expansion and growth will influence the business objective. Below is the comparison data of retailers with its number of stores in Malaysia. Retailer Number of stores Giant. 40(hypermarket/superstores) Total Giant stores: 100 Tesco. 35(hypermarket) Carrefour. 23(hypermarket) Econsave. 38(supermarket hypermarket) Mydin. 4 hypermarkets. Total Mydin stores : 55 Hypermarket list is not exhaustive. [Business Times , Saturday, July 31, 2010] Therefore I would like to investigate whether Mydins expansions and growth strategy is viable to the business to gain market share and emerge as market leader. RESEARCH BACKGROUND. This commentary will be based on these following supporting documents; MYDIN EXPECTS 10pc RISE IN PROFIT, QA with Datuk Ameer Ali (Mydin)/SKORCAREER Mydin to built its biggest hypermart in Kota Baru/Business Times. New logo,motto for Buy Malaysian Campaign/mydin.com.my INTERNAL CENTRE OF LEADERSHIP(ICLIF)-2009/MYDIN CASE STUDY. Microsoft Supports Malaysian Retailers Aggressive Plans to Expend. Malaysia mulls bar-code system for halal, products Business Times MARKETING. Marketing Planning. As a retail company in Malaysia, Mydin had implement several marketing planning to boost their sales and obtaining bigger market share. Therefore, this commentary will examine the marketing mix approached by Mydin to successfully market their product and formulate their marketing strategy. Therefore, Mydin can moves towards becoming a market leader. Marketing mix: Product. Mydin has a wide range of product line such as food line, soft line, hard-line and household items. Due to the wide range of product, Mydin will benefits from larger customer base. This will give positive advantage to Mydin as its customer can obtain all products needed here at lower and cheaper price. As a local player, Mydin provide items that are complement with its customers need. Majority of Malaysian are Muslims. Therefore, Mydin provide local prayer mats, prayer garment for women and traditional product which are rarely found elsewhere. However, Mydin should consider its non-Muslim customers due to the image of the place where only Muslim shops. Place. Besides, Mydin is currently expending their business into different format namely hypermarkets, emporium, and My Mart (24 hour convenience stores). As referred to growth of Mydins chain by the year 2009 to 2020, the business forecasted to have 26 Hypermarket, 60 Convenience Store, 20 Emporium and 5 My Mart  [1]  . This investment cost the business a large amount of cash which is RM 200million for supermarket and 60 million for the building of hypermarket  [2]  . The managing director tries to emulate the growth strategies of Kmart by having My Mart although Kmart experience bankruptcy. This expansion can help Mydin, reachable for its customers with various channel of distribution. For example, the choice to build the biggest hypermarket in Malaysia at Kota Baharu  [3]  is due to high demand and larger land available. However, Mydin should consider their large expansion as they may be affected by diseconomies of scale. Promotion. In terms of promotion Mydin apply me-to-promotion where Mydin follow and respond to their rivals marketing strategies such as purchasing similar advertisement board and article from newspaper  [4]  . One of its outlets in Subang Jaya has a digital billboard, controlled digitally from its office. This provides fast response toward its rivals advertisement. Besides, Mydin should consider having other marketing strategies such as advertisement through website or radio to provide detailed information and awareness of their existence. Price. Mydin is well-known for selling its product at wholesale price (40% of its business is wholesale). As compared to its rival, (Giant, Tesco and Carrefour) Mydin is a favorite place for shopping especially in period of economic down turn. They gain RM 1.3 billion in 2009 from RM 1.1.in 2008  [5]  . This proves that as Mydin grow organically, they gain strength in volume, thus can sell cheaper as compared to its rivals. Therefore, the situation is inciting its marketing objective. Positioning. Market positioning is crucial to portray a good corporate image and differentiate Mydins product over rivals. The unique selling point (USP) of Mydin that makes the business stand out from others is the embracing the concept of Halal (following the dietary law in Islam)  [6]  . As most Malaysian are Muslim and very particular in Halal product, the USP is an added advantage. Mydin popular slogans: Where everybody can buy  [7]  also provide a perception towards the customers that in retail industry, you can buy product cheaper at Mydin. But Mydin need to sustain the image by providing items cheap and not providing cheap items with low qualities. Mydin can perceive its brand to be a bargain brands (at high quality but with low price) although its hard to sustain. Therefore, with the growth and expansion strategies, Mydin is moving from Economy brands towards Bargain brands.  [8]   Quality High Low High Premium brands Cowboy brands Low Bargain brands Economy brands Price Figure 1: Perception map showing relationship between price and quality. The slogan is in line with governments campaign, Buy Malaysian  [9]  which educates Malaysian to buy local product (Mydin provide local product on its shelves). Mydins outlet at Subang Jaya has been chosen as the place for exhibition attends by Prime Minister to launch the campaign  [10]  . Besides, Mydin together with Halal Development Council (HDC) organized Halal training program course for small- and medium-sized entrepreneurs (SMEs)  [11]  . The corporate social responsibilities (CSR) done by Mydin enhance its image and will attract customers to choose Mydin instead of others. OPERATION MANAGEMENT. Product Planning. As Mydin grow, the business may affected by overtrading due to stockpiling  [12]  . This situation can increase cost and later absorb on the price of product. Hence, Mydin decide on Microsoft Dynamics AX for Retail to applied Just-In-Time stock management  [13]  . The software provides information for its suppliers and decision-makers so that the distribution of stocks runs smoothly from stores to supply chain  [14]  . By this, Mydin can be more responsive to its customers, reduce their break-even point, and improve cash flow and the working capital cycle  [15]  . Consequently, provide competitive advantage towards its rival. HUMAN RESOURCES. Organizational Structure. Besides, Mydin interfere coordination problem of its managers as the business grow hierarchal taller and wider span of control. Communication across the organizational structure will become time consuming and in certain case may be distorted. To overcome this, Mydin decide on Microsoft Office SharePoint Server 2007  [16]  that allows massive information to be provided to all layer of the organization and its suppliers. Motivation. In becoming a market leader, Mydin must have a productive employees to generate larger working capital.16.2% of its workers are foreigners and the remaining are locals  [17]  . To create sense of belonging to work and generate teambuilding between workers, the company provides financial and emotional support  [18]  . According to Maslows hierarchy of needs, people are motivated more than just money  [19]  . Mydin meets the social needs of its worker by conducting birthday parties, cultural dance and inter-branch sports.  [20]   CONCLUSION. Mydin has implemented huge expansion and organic growth of its company. They try to gain their market share by becoming more competitive toward its rival. In becoming so, a transformation throughout the organization is done. Based on the marketing planning carried out, Mydin is currently on the right direction towards its corporate objectives. We can notice how Mydin develop strategic marketing mix to successfully market their product. However, there is some areas that should be improved and focus on. In terms of product, Mydin can try to attract non-Muslim customers by having a promotion or creating an image of Mydin as a place for anyone. Besides that Mydin has wide channel of distribution. However, Mydin should also consider dealing with diseconomies of scales. One of the choices is by introducing measures to remove productive inefficiencies. Mydin might count the effectiveness of each of the business format. The marketing strategies indicate that Mydin can gain higher market share from its competitive advantage in promotion and price. In positioning their product, Mydin had done it well through their USP, slogan and CSR played. They manage to give clear perception of the business to public. Hence, they can gain more customers in the future. In operation management and human resources, Mydin try to centralize their management to hinder business runs at loss and to generate efficiencies. Their decision to cooperate with Microsoft Corp. is a right choice to place Mydin at top amongst other key players. Also, without neglecting its employees needs and demands. Overall, based on the analysis of marketing planning, operation management and human resource Mydin expansion and growth strategies is viable for the business to be a market leader in retail industry.

Technology: Past, Present, and Future Essay examples -- Automobiles Ca

Technology: Past, Present, and Future Remember the days of the Old West? The women walked around with their parasols or rode in a horse drawn carriage and the men rode fast and furious on their horses. Everything you needed was right there in town: the saloon, the general store, and the barber. When one needed to get somewhere, they would walk. If they needed to travel far, there were steam-powered locomotives. As towns and cities grew larger, it was not so convenient to walk everywhere. There was a need for a machine that could get us around to where we had to go. Technology was becoming a bigger part of the times and the machine we now know today as the automobile was invented. Millions of people throughout the world depend on the automobile to take them from place to place in their busy lives. Take a second to think about how difficult your life was before you began to drive. You had to ask family and friends to drive you to school, work and wherever you wanted to go. Now imagine there are no cars for us to drive. How different would our lives be? In "Cars and Their Enemies," James Q. Wilson looks at this very question. He examines how are lives would be affected if suddenly today, the car was built. Wilson also challenges those who are skeptical about the use of the car and defends his view that the car is a necessity. Imagine we live in a world of only public transportation. If we wanted to get away, we would have to ride a bike or walk. We would have to shop only for what we could hold. We would have to work close to our homes or take a bus. In other words, our lives would be quite hectic. Now suppose the idea of building a personal automobile is proposed to us. Do we jump at the chance or cower away from it? W... ...gain. So in fifty years when you're getting ready to cruise around town in your brand new twenty four-caret gold painted, voice activated, battery powered hovercraft, don't forget to grab your wallet. You're going to need to have your software license, photocopying license, Internet license, listening license, reading license, oh and don't forget your drivers license. If the future of technology comes to this, then all of these licenses are a definite possibility. It may take many years to come to this but if it happens we have to be ready. So in the words of a famous credit card company, "Don't leave home without it." Works Cited Samuelson, Pamela. "The Digital Rights War." The Presence of Others. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2000. 315-321 Wilson, James Q. "Cars and Their Enemies." The Presence of Others. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2000. 303-314

Racial and Ethnic Groups Matrix Essay

Is this an ethnic or racial group and why? Where did this group originate? How did this group become a part of American culture? What challenges has this grouped faced in the U.S.? How is this group portrayed today in American society? Have you witness any racism or prejudice toward this group? Any additional comments? Native Americans Native Americans are considered a racial group because of the large population Native Americans came to America from Asia in the last Ice Age. Native Americans became a part of American culture with the arrival of horses. The increased mobility helped encourage a period of prosperity for Native American groups whose territories were expanding with hunting. Horses became a part of the spiritual, economic and political culture of Native Americans The biggest challenge for Native Americans is coming through assimilation both force and voluntary. The American people and the US government made various efforts to assimilate Native Americans which included but does not limit federal policies, education, religious acculturation. These physically separated Native Americans from the rest of the United States and imposed nonnative forms of housing such as land use, agricultural and hunting methods Native Americans relationship with the United States government beginning before the American Revolution with the signing of treaties for trade and friendship between Native Americans tribes and European-American colonies. I personally have not witnessed any racism or prejudice towards this group. African Americans African Americans are a minority group. However Blacks is the race where African Americans can classify themselves when it comes to race. African Americans were involuntarily captured and transferred from Africa to colonies throughout the Western Hemisphere to become slaves. In recent years, African Americans have started to demand their history as most people think that American history is just the history of white people. The biggest challenges African Americans face in the US are high out of wedlock birth rates, absent of fathers, and the lack of family support for young African Americans. Media in today’s society portrays young African Americans as criminals, crime victims and predators. According to the Black Agenda Report, it is said that â€Å" The perception of African Americans and other people of color as inferior to whites is rooted in the nations legacy of racial hierarchy†. I haven’t experienced or seen racism towards African Americans but I do recall when Trayvon Martin was killed. Society blamed the shooting because Trayvon was black. While jurors disagreed, many people still feel injustice was served. Hispanic Americans Hispanics are considered an Ethnic group. Hispanics came from a number of countries including Cuba, Spain, Mexico, and Puerto Rico in addition to other South American countries. A number of obstacles had to be handled by Hispanics in the US. In my opinion, the biggest obstacle they had to face is getting a job. Hispanics are typecast as low-level employees, and only a small number of Hispanics are part of upper management in the United States. Hispanics have also been typecast as unskilled workers and troublemakers in the past. They are also considered to be antagonistic and unrefined. As a Hispanic, I have felt prejudice because of the color of my skin. For example a few weeks ago I was in Des Moines and I felt out of place because of the color of my skin. Mexican Americans Majority of Mexican Americans holds religious faith and traditions that are important factors in their everyday life. This is their main difference from other Hispanic groups. Mexicans migrated from Spain and Mexico. They established themselves in the  southwestern states of the United States. Employers requested the Mexicans to be brought into the country in 1942 to fill the labor demand. Mexican Americans also have to deal with a number of obstacles such as being considered as second class citizens and apprehensions on the legality of their immigration. Mexican Americans today are depicted to provide inexpensive labor for occupations that are normally favored by majority of Americans. My parents are Mexican Americans and I have heard stories of where they were discriminated years ago because they were Mexicans in the United States. They worked hard for what they had and yet they felt belittle by Americans. Muslim and Arab Americans Arab and Muslim Americans are very religious and have a good amount of faith. Although these two ethnic groups are typically viewed as one, they have a number of differences. Arab and Muslims come from Middle Eastern countries like Iraq, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, and Syria. A number of ethnic groups were influenced by their customs and traditions. They perform a number of work-related functions like managing stores in low-income communities. Arab and Muslim Americans had to deal with a number of obstacles in the US. These obstacles range from a prejudice to abhorrence. A good number of people have a negative view of their religion. Arab and Muslim Americans have been depicted by the US media as barbaric and dishonest especially after 9/11. Americans don’t trust Muslims and Arabs because of what they did to us Americans. Although I have not observed any discrimination against this ethnic group, the media demonstrated prejudice against them after 9/11. Asian Americans The features of Asian Americans demonstrate their difference from other ethnic groups. Asian Americans originally came from the Pacific Islands, China, the Philippines and Asia in general. The Nationality Act of 1965 facilitated the integration of Asians into the American culture. Asian Americans have to deal with a number of obstacles mainly due to the fact that they feel that American society does not accept them, and they are treated as second-class citizens. Asian Americans are known for their excellence in education and technology. They are also successful in their chosen careers. I have not observed any discrimination against this ethic group. Jewish Americans Jewish Americans have a similar culture and religion. A person has the choice of being a Jew. Jewish Americans migrated from a number of countries in Europe including England, Germany and Poland. They also come from the former Soviet Union. Following a decline in the economy in their respective countries in the 1700s, a number of Jews migrated into the US and became integrated into American society. The strengthening of the US economy also contributed to this influx of Jews into the US. One obstacle that Jews had to deal with was when they were blamed for the fiscal crisis in the US. Presently, Jewish Americans represent the second biggest ethnic group in the United States I have not observed any discrimination against this ethnic  group. Anglo Americans Anglo Americans is a diverse ethnic group that features some differences in their skin color and religion. Anglo Americans migrated mainly from Germany, Ireland and England. A good number of them arrived in the US sometime in the 1800s. Anglo Americans have to deal with a number of racial issues in the US since they do not consider themselves as a single race. Other ethnic groups also look down on them as a group. Presently, Anglo Americans are depicted mainly as a dominant culture in the US. They consider the United States as their country and they show that through their actions. This outlook is supported by the media in the US. I have not observed any discrimination against this ethnic group.

Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership

Matthew R. Fairholm University of South Dakota Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership Public administrators need not only practical and intellectual permission to exercise leadership, but also a practical and intellectual understanding of what leadership actually is. Much has emerged in the public administration literature and practice about the need for and legitimacy of public managers exerting leadership in their work, complementing the traditional functions of organizational management and policy implementation.Calling on the experiences and ideas of practitioners, this article offers an empirical understanding—both descriptive and prescriptive— of what leadership actually looks like as it is practiced by public managers. It uncovers five leadership perspectives (ranging from leadership as equivalent to scientific management, to leadership being a whole-soul or spiritual endeavor) held by public managers and discusses their implications for public admi nistration. It legitimizes the notion that leadership is a crucial part of public administration and offers public managers the chance to improve or enhance those legitimate leadership activities.Public administrators not only need practical and intellectual permission to exercise leadership, they need practical and intellectual understanding of what leadership actually is. Training public managers in the skills and techniques of leadership and management has become a major part of public human resource efforts (Day 2000; Sims 2002; Rainey and Kellough 2000; Ink 2000; Pynes 2003). Articles and essays have surfaced in the literature about the need for and legitimacy of public managers exerting leadership in their work, complementing the traditional functions of organizational management and policy and program implementation.Books have emerged to lend more specificity to the topic of leadership in the public sector. Still, in the face of technicism, strict policy implementation, and a fear of administrative discretion, it has often been a significant struggle to discuss the philosophy of leadership in public administration. This article offers empirical insight, both descriptive and prescriptive, about what leadership actually looks like as practiced by public managers, and it supports a growing focus on leadership in the literature (Behn 1998; Terry 1995; Van Wart 2003). The research findings influence ublic administration and the individual public administrator by first growing our basic understanding of leadership, refining our perceived public administration roles consistent with that understanding, and finally, reshaping the professional training of public administrators. These new ideas about how public managers view and practice leadership legitimize the notion that leadership is inherent in and a crucial part of public administration, and it offers public managers the chance to improve or enhance those legitimate leadership activities. The hope s that th e current trend of building leadership and management capacity among practitioners will be undertaken with a more proper focus and with renewed theoretical and practical vigor. Background: The Leadership Apology in Public Administration Public administration traditionally is the study and work of management in public organizations. It is also the study and work of leadership in those organizations. Public administration emerged with a bias toward management science—the expert, the decision maker—but management science has not sufficiently served public administration McSwite 1997). Bennis (1993) suggests that managers Matthew R. Fairholm is an assistant professor in the Political Science Department and the W. O. Farber Center for Civic Leadership at the University of South Dakota. His teaching and training experience spans the public, private, nonprofit, and university settings, including extensive training and consulting in the District of Columbia government and with federal government executives. His academic and professional interests focus on public administration, leadership theory and practice, and organizational behavior.E-mail: [email  protected] edu. Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership 577 focus on doing their work right (that is, correctly), while leadership is concerned with selecting the right things— programs, policies, values, goals, etc. —to work on. In today’s environment, it makes more sense for us to describe public administration as the practice and theory that grapples with doing the right things right in the service of society. In short, public administration is the work of management and leadership. In contemporary literature, the concepts of management nd leadership are constantly being defined, compared, and differentiated. 1 A simple way to see the distinction is that if you can count it, you can control it, you can program it, and therefore, you can manage it. If you cannot count it, you have to do leadership. While some still may not see a distinction, the leadership literature today by and large accepts the differences. Notions of leadership, for instance, grounded the government reinvention efforts so prevalent in the 1990s (Ingraham, Sanders, and Thompson 1998).For example, Sanders (1998) argues that leadership is essential in the working and transformation of government. He suggests the key ingredients of leadership in government reinvention include â€Å"single-minded purpose and a strategic perspective with a proclivity for risk †¦ participation and persistence† (55). Behn (1998) says that leadership is required in the world of public administration to resolve its inherent imperfections. He suggests that no matter what we call the work of public managers, managing the systems and procedures are only part of the job.Initiative, motivation, inspiration— the things of leadership—also play a critical role in making government and government organizations work. Behn offers that the question is not whether they should lead, but rather what kind of leadership should public administrators be practicing. For him it is â€Å"active, intelligent, enterprising leadership †¦ that takes astute initiatives designed to help the agency not only achieve its purposes today but also to create new capacity to achieve its objectives tomorrow† (224). Terry’s (1995) view of leadership serves as a backdrop to much of Behn’s discussion.While Behn focuses on the traits and behaviors of public managers, Terry emphasizes a normative, values-laden approach to leadership, dismissing the heroic leadership constructs in favor of the leader as conservator of institutional and organizational values and goals. The idea of public managers infusing values into an organization is not a new one, even if it is often ignored. Selznick (1983) states that the point of leadership is to â€Å"infuse the organization with values. † And Denhardt (1981) says the theory and practice of public administration are integral to the development of the state and its allocation f values in society. It follows, therefore, that public administration must encompass far more than technical concerns (Hart 1984). Fairholm (1991) focuses a discussion 578 Public Administration Review †¢ September/October 2004, Vol. 64, No. 5 of values leadership in the work of public administration, presenting a model of leadership that is consistent with the fundamental constitutional values that guide and shape the work of public managers. Luminaries in the field, such as Follett (1918), Barnard (1938), and Waldo (1980), have also discussed leadership issues in terms of values and relationships.This focus has been renewed in the leadership literature discussing emotional intelligence, or the ability to understand people and act wisely in human relations (Goleman 1995). Nevertheless, for most, leadership is only one of many supporting elements of public administration’s success or efficacy, not a major factor in public administration theory and practice. In fact, some public administration theorists avoid the topic of leadership altogether. James MacGregor Burns (1978) offers a reason. In modern times, he writes, leadership research and theory have been misfounded in social and political thought. Burns emphatically argues that an ncompassing leadership theory has suffered both from an ill-advised intellectual trip â€Å"down a blind alley,† leading only to misguided ideas of authority, and from the inadequacy of empirical data (23). Researchers have denigrated the idea of leadership, he contends, because they misunderstand the evolving nature of authority derived from changing social structures, and because they have missed opportunities to tie in research procedures and focuses from intellectual interests such as psychology, sociology, history, and political science, not just scientific management, Weberian bureaucracy, and the like.Following Burns’s argument, perhaps public administrators are still afraid of the concepts of raw power, authority, and domination, with which a misguided history of leadership theory has endowed us with. Specifically, many in public administration suffer from a preoccupation with traditional arguments surrounding the potential evils of authority. This preoccupation revolves around typical public administration issues and concerns that are described in ways contrary to the focus on leadership found in recent literature. These concerns can be summarized by what ight be termed the â€Å"three D’s†: (1) dichotomy arguments that say leadership looks too much like politics and therefore should be eschewed; (2) discretion arguments that simply define leadership as a maverick and undesirable version of administrative discretion; and (3) domination/ authority arguments that suggest leadership is merely another form of domi nation and authority and, therefore, is inherently dangerous because it tends to create societal units that are dominated by the whims of unchecked (that is, unelected), morally hegemonic â€Å"men of reason† (McSwite 1997).Despite these objections (indeed, perhaps because of them), studying what leadership actually is and how it is applied makes sense in the world of public administration. As Burns once optimistically declared, â€Å"At last we can hope to close the intellectual gap between the fecund canons of authority and a new and general theory of leadership† (1978, 26). Certainly, studying leadership in public administration offers an opportunity to jump the practical hurdles that history and intellectual narrowness have presented. Such endeavors can begin to close an intellectual and practical gap and help complete the field.Beginning to Fill the Public Administration Leadership Gap For public administration, the leadership gap has really only existed in the ac ademic realm. Practitioners have been â€Å"doing leadership† and dealing with authority and influence all along, but without a good model for what they are doing. While some writers in the field have focused on leadership, overall, public administration scholars have done little to help understand what leadership in public organizations is. Van Wart (2003) suggests it is still an area worthy of more thought and especially more research. His eview of public administration articles suggests that leadership itself has not been in the mainstream of public administration literature and that a dearth of empirical research on leadership is evident. Many public administration academics are, at best, ignoring leadership issues and, at worst, rejecting the concept. Practitioners, on the other hand, are trying to gain sufficient training or grounding in leadership to deal with the relationship-based issues they face daily. Because of this practitioner focus, a few universities have sta rted programs explicitly linking leadership and the public sector environment.Increasingly, government agencies are devoting time and financial resources to leadership and management-development programs. 2 Many state governments have committed to offering the nationally recognized certified public manager training to their employees. And most federal agencies have leadership-development programs for senior executives, middle managers, and new recruits with significant leadership potential. You Know It When You See It Even with all of this focus on leadership development, public administration as a field has not devoted sufficient cholarly attention to the topic. People often lump all executive functions or behavior into the word â€Å"leadership. † They disregard the unique leadership techniques that have prompted contemporary leadership scholars to differentiate leadership and management. Thus, they may say that virtually everything done in organizations is leadershipâ€⠀ which also means that nothing is. One reason for this lack of attention is that understanding leadership is hard. In part, this is true because of the many extant management and leadership theories, approaches, and definitions. To some xtent, though, these definitions of leadership simply reflect the theory that each individual researcher has about the leadership phenomenon. One authority on leadership suggests, â€Å"Leadership is like beauty. You know it when you see it. † As Stogdill (1974, 7) suggests, â€Å"there are as many definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept. † Understanding leadership, then, may entail understanding people’s conceptions or mind sets about the phenomenon and framing these perspectives in a useful model. Studying practitioner views n leadership, therefore, is an appropriate and valuable start to understanding what leadership looks like in public administration to public administrators. This article deals with the author’s study focusing on what leadership looks like to public managers. This research develops empirical evidence that different perspectives on leadership exist that shape the behavior of individual practitioners in ways specific to their mind sets. This is a â€Å"personal conceptions† or â€Å"perspectival† approach to leadership study. This perspectival approach reveals the different ways that individual public managers see their eadership activities every day—how they conceive of leadership from their perspective. Therefore, it provides a richer, more meaningful understanding of the concept of leadership and facilitates a more complete analysis of the leadership phenomenon. It also suggests it is likely that practitioner leaders can grow in their understanding of leadership. Importantly, this research better informs the work of public administrators by emphasizing both the leadership and the management responsibilities that are evident as practitioners ply their craft. Leader and Leadership Two main approaches to studying leadership emerge.The most popular is a focus on the leader, suggesting that leadership is best understood by studying specific individuals in specific situations (Bennis 1984; Kouzes and Posner 1990; Carson 1987; Sanders 1998). Proponents of this method focus on the qualities, behaviors, and situational responses of those who claim to be or are given the title of leader. In this first approach, leadership is what leaders are or do, and therefore the meaning of leadership derives from the work of the leader: Leaders define leadership. The second approach recognizes that studying individual eaders may not get you to a general understanding of leadership (DePree 1992; Wheatley 1999; Heifetz 1994; Burns 1978; Greenleaf 1977). This approach rejects the idea that leadership is a summation of the qualities, behaviors, or situational responses of individuals in a position of authority a t the head of organizations. Proponents of this approach accept that leadership is something larger than the leader— that leadership encompasses all there is that defines who a Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership 579 leader may be. Hence, the meaning of â€Å"leader† (or who ay be labeled a leader) depends on the leadership techniques displayed, not the position held. This second approach differs from the leadercentric approach mainly by asking the question, â€Å"what is leadership? † instead of â€Å"who is a leader? † This second, more philosophical approach guides this research exploring how public managers view leadership. Applying the Perspectival Approach to Understanding Leadership Paradigmatic, perspectival, or worldview conceptions of how we look at the world are not new in literature. Barker (1992) uses the term â€Å"paradigm† to suggest a system or attern of integrating thoughts, actions, and practices. Graves (1970) d escribes different states of being, each of which determines actions, relationships, and measures of success. Although the states of being are somewhat hierarchically arranged, Graves’s research shows that a person need not necessarily grow to higher levels or states of being. Harman (1998), in reviewing the history of science and knowledge, suggests there are three fundamental ways (perspectives) of seeing and knowing the world and the phenomena of social interaction. Other authors see culture s shaping the way we view things in our everyday experiences (Quinn and McGrath 1985; Schein 1996; Herzberg 1984; Hofstede 1993). McWhinney (1984) explains the importance of looking at paradigmatic perspectives in studying leadership. He argues the different ways people experience reality result in distinctly different attitudes toward change, and understanding these different concepts contributes to new understanding about resistance to change and modes of leadership. Morgan (1998) al so suggests that the way we see organizations influences how we operate within them and even shapes the types of activities that make sense ithin them. The Theory of Leadership Perspectives The research draws on the perspectives outlined by Gil Fairholm (1998). He suggests that people view leadership in at least five different ways. These perspectives not only shape how one internalizes observation and externalizes belief sets, they also determine how one measures success in oneself and others. Thus, Fairholm says, â€Å"defining leadership is an intensely personal activity limited by our personal paradigms or our mental state of being, our unique mind set† (xv). Our leadership perspective defines what we mean when we say â€Å"leadership† and shapes how we iew successful leadership in ourselves and others. He explains that while the leadership perspective that someone holds may not be the objective reality about leader580 Public Administration Review †¢ September /October 2004, Vol. 64, No. 5 ship, people holding that view behave as if it is. Individuals immediately draw on their own conceptions to internalize conversations about leadership. They define leadership for themselves and use their perspective as the basis for judging whether others are exercising leadership. Frustration, confusion, and even conflict may arise because individuals may simply have ultiple, competing, even conflicting conceptions of what leadership is. Fairholm posits five distinct leadership mind sets that emerge from experience and literature from the past 100 years or so. The first is leadership as (scientific) management. This perspective equates leadership with the type of management that draws on the scientific management movement of the early part of the twentieth century, which still has relevance for many even today. In this perspective, much emphasis is placed on managers understanding the one best way to promote and maintain productivity among the employee ranks.Gulick’s (1937) famous mnemonic, POSDCORB (plan, organize, staff, direct, coordinate, report and budget), had great influence on the work of public administrators by legitimizing and routinizing the administration of government and fits squarely in this perspective. The second perspective, leadership as excellence management, suggests that leadership is management but focuses on what has been called the â€Å"excellence movement. † Popularized in the 1980s by Peters and Waterman (1982), Deming (1986), and Juran (1989), this perspective focuses on systematic quality improvements with a focus on the eople involved in the processes, the processes themselves, and the quality of products that are produced. The third perspective is leadership as a values-displacement activity. This perspective defines leadership as a relationship between leader and follower that allows for typical management objectives to be achieved primarily through shared values, not merely directi on and control. Leadership success depends more on values and shared vision than on organizational authority. Although the values-leadership perspective differentiates leadership and management, it still focuses much on the role of the leader in the elationship. The fourth perspective, leadership in a trust culture, shifts the focus toward the ambient culture where interaction between the leader and the led is based on trust founded on shared values, recognizing the follower as having a key role in the leadership relationship. This mind set emphasizes teams, culture, and mutual trust between leader and follower, which are the methods leaders use to institutionalize their values. The last perspective is whole-soul (spiritual) leadership. This perspective builds on the ideas of displacing values and maintaining a culture of trust, as it focuses attention n the whole-soul nature of both the individual leader and each follower. This perspective assumes that people have only one spirit, which manifests itself in both our professional and personal lives, and that the activity of leadership engages individuals at this core level. â€Å"Spirit† is defined in terms of the basis of comfort, strength, happiness; the essence of self; the source of personal meaning and values; a personal belief system or inner certainty; and an emotional level of being. Equating spiritual leadership with the relatively new idea of emotional intelligence may seem atural. Emotional intelligence is indeed related to social intelligence and wise human relations. It involves the ability to monitor one’s own emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions (Salovey and Mayer 1990). Emotional intelligence is a useful concept (perhaps for all of the perspectives, but especially from values leadership on), but it involves only a part of what spiritual leaders might use in their larger-scoped task of capturing the spirit (the s oul, the heart, or the character) of followers at the emotional, ut also at the value, intellectual, and technical levels. Whole-soul (spiritual) leadership integrates the components of work and personal life into a comprehensive system that fosters continuous growth, improvement, self-awareness, and self leadership in such a way that leaders see others as whole persons with a variety of emotions, skills, knowledge, and abilities that go beyond the narrow confines of job needs. Spiritual leadership is essentially the linking of our interior world of moral reflection with our outer world of work and social relationships. The theory suggests these five perspectives are distinct ut related hierarchically, leading to a more accurate and comprehensive conception of leadership. This hierarchy suggests that succeeding perspectives encompass and transcend lower-order perspectives, and that individuals must move through simpler perspectives before being able to comprehend and engage in leade rship activities characterized by more complex perspectives. To gain a full picture of leadership, the theory suggests, we should take into account how a â€Å"holarchy† of leadership perspectives offers a compilation of leadership elements that produces a more comprehensive view of the leadership phenomenon Koestler 1970). Within this compilation of leadership elements, some transcend others to such a degree as to make the less encompassing elements look less like true leadership. As we move up the model, the distinctive elements of leadership as differentiated from management become more refined. The Leadership Perspectives Model The leadership perspectives model explains leadership in terms of these encompassing perspectives (figure 1). The model shows five concentric triangles, the smallest of which is scientific management and the largest of which is whole- soul leadership.Thus, in two dimensions, we are able to see how one perspective can encompass and transcend another perspective. For example, values leadership encompasses the ideas of scientific management and excellence management, but transcends them in ways that help us to see distinct activities and approaches that create a line between management theories of the past and leadership ideas in contemporary literature. The leadership perspectives model operationalizes significant elements of Fairholm’s initial theory, illustrating how these constructs, along with operational categories and ey leadership elements, relate. The specific leadership elements are ones that are found in contemporary leadership literature. Overall, the model points the way not only to understand the phenomenon of leadership better, but also to teach leadership and develop individuals in their leadership activities. Key Research Findings This researcher performed a content analysis on 103 essays written by middle managers in the District of Columbia government describing their conception of leadership.Data were also collected from 31 interviews of public managers (balanced in terms of government function, personnel grade level, gender, and ethnicity) in three metropolitan Washington-area jurisdictions — Arlington County, Virginia, Washington, DC, and Prince George’s County, Maryland—as a supplement and verification of the essays’ analysis. The content analysis and interview data reveal the following general findings about the leadership of public managers in terms of the five leadership perspectives. Five Leadership Perspectives.The content analysis revealed four distinct, â€Å"pure† leadership perspectives and one transitional perspective (that is, excellence management). The scientific management, values leadership, trust culture leadership, and whole-soul leadership perspectives were evident as distinct mind sets held by practicing public executives. Fifteen of 103 essays (14. 6 percent) reflected completely distinct leadership perspectives. All persp ectives were evident in mixed or combination forms. The scientific management perspective was identified as the perspective of choice most often, receiving the most hits t 24 percent, while the excellence management perspective received the least at 15 percent. Each hit measures the existence of at least one description or reference to a leadership element in the leadership perspectives model. The evidence for each leadership perspective is reinforced by the analysis of both the essays and the interviews. Excellence management garnered the least concrete support. It is the only perspective that did not have a pure form found in the essays—that is, no one was identified as solely in this perspective—and almost one-third of the essays had Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership 581Figure 1 Leadership Perspectives Model 11. Ensure efficient use of resources to ensure group activity is controlled and predictable 12. Ensure verifiably optimal productivity and r esource allocation 13. Foster continuous process-improvement environment for increased service and productivity levels 14. Transform the environment and perceptions of followers to encourage innovation, high quality products, and excellent services 15. Help individuals become proactive contributors to group action based on shared values and agreed upon goals 16. Encourage high organizational performance and self-led followers 17.Ensure cultures conducive to mutual trust and unified collective action 18. Prioritization of mutual cultural values and organizational conduct in terms of those values 19. Relate to individuals such that concern for the whole person is paramount in raising each other to higher levels of awareness and action 10. Best in people is liberated in a context of continuous improvement of self, culture, and service delivery Whole-Soul (Spiritual) Leadership Trust Cultural Leadership Values Leadership Excellence Management 1. Incentivization 2. Control 3. Direction S cientific Management 14. Motivation 15. Engaging people in roblem definition and solution 16. Expressing common courtesy/respect 17. Values prioritization 18. Teaching/coaching 19. Empowering (fostering ownership) 11. Measuring/ appraising/rewarding individual performance 12. Organizing 13. Planning 14. Focusing on process improvement 15. Listening actively 16. Being accessible 17. Setting and enforcing values 18. Visioning 19. Focusing communication around the vision 10. Trust 11. Team building 12. Fostering a shared culture 10. Creating and maintaining culture through visioning 11. Sharing governance 12. Measuring/appraising/ rewarding group performance 13.Inspiration 14. Liberating followers to build community and promote stewardship 15. Modeling a service orientation 13. Developing and enabling individual wholeness in a community (team) context 14. Fostering an intelligent organization 15. Setting moral standards no hits relevant to this perspective. However, the interview data show it to be the most frequently described perspective. This finding suggests that excellence management may be more appropriately labeled a transition or bridge perspective from scientific management to values leadership. This perspective may reflect people’s tendency to mix the ocabularies of management and leadership as they try to express what it is they actually do. People hear the newer 582 Public Administration Review †¢ September/October 2004, Vol. 64, No. 5 terms of leadership, but they may not yet be able to shake off the traditions of management theory and the vocabulary of industrial revolution. The result is a description of leadership that mixes the efficiency and productivity mantra of scientific management with the relationship, teamwork, values, and empowerment vocabulary of recent leadership literature, such as that found in the values-based leadership and emotional intelligence literature.Hierarchical Leadership Perspectives. The five perspectives of leadership tend toward a hierarchy. The public managers described perspectives that related in loosely hierarchical ways—perspectives that encompass and transcend other perspectives. In this sense, the scientific management perspective is of a lower order in the leadership perspective hierarchy. All of the other perspectives encompass and transcend it. Whole-soul leadership is of a higher order, transcending the other four. The interview data verify essay data and confirm the five perspectives relate in a hierarchical manner.Through trial and error, by increasing their awareness of leadership activities, or by increasing their levels of responsibility in the organization, individuals may progress from lower-order perspectives to higherorder perspectives. This suggests that some people may extend their understanding and practice of leadership over time. This could happen if a career is maintained at the same organizational level or if it spans multiple levels. Data illustrate that adopting a new perspective transcends the previous one. For instance, the tools and behaviors of a lower-order perspective may be the building blocks for the ools and behaviors of succeeding perspectives, but they are not adopted unchanged from one perspective to another. As one moves up the hierarchy of leadership perspectives, the tools, behaviors, and approaches one uses are encompassed and transcended and can, at certain levels, be totally sublimated by other tools and behaviors so as to be obsolete or even antithetical to the work of a leader in higher-order perspectives. Distinctiveness through the Operational Categories. The perspectives can be distinguished by understanding how someone describes the implementation (or doing) of eadership, the tools and behaviors used, and the approaches to followers taken in the leadership relationship. The content analysis of all 103 essays suggests that specific leadership elements within the â€Å"approaches to followers† cate gory distinguish a person’s leadership perspectives (such as giving orders, motivating, team building, inspiring). However, the tools and behaviors that individuals describe in â€Å"doing leadership† are more helpful in differentiating leadership perspectives than either of the other two. Table 1 summarizes the number of times a leadership element ithin the operational categories of the leadership perspectives was distinctly described in the essays. A total of 1,343 distinct references to the leadership elements that define the categories outlined in the leadership perspectives model were found in the 103 essays. The interview data reinforce the fact that the operational categories in the model are useful in distinguishing leadership perspectives. Seeing More the Higher Up You Are. The higher in the organizational hierarchy public managers are, and the more time in service they have, the more likely they are to subscribe to higher-order perspectives.Perhaps this is a commonsensical notion, but rarely, if ever before, born out by research (though by no way is it to say that by virtue of promotion individuals necessarily adopt more encompassing views of the leadership responsibilities). Comments from interview subjects validate this idea. One mid-level manager within the whole-soul leadership perspective stated bluntly that â€Å"my views have changed over a number of years. † Another response from a senior executive within the trust culture leadership perspective indicated, â€Å"If you were to ask me five years ago I would have a different answer, I’d have different thoughts. As this individual began to understand different aspects of the job, especially aspects dealing with values and relationships, new ideas and technologies began to emerge and were viewed as successful. These statements, typical of many this researcher received, lend evidence that people can and do move from one perspective to another and that the movement is t oward higher-order perspectives—perspectives that are more encompassing and transcendent than previous conceptions. There may even be a point at which they realize what they thought they were doing in terms of leadership actually urned out to be more managerial in nature. A realization of how leadership differs from management causes them to focus their leadership effort differently. One public administrator confided that â€Å"in this current job, I jumped right into management (there was a lot wrong in that area) and I was frustrated that I hadn’t taken the time to do the leadership. Now I am starting from scratch all over focusing on the ‘leadership piece’ because the office still did not function well. † Gender and Racial Congruence. All five perspectives were evident in male and female public managers at the ame relative frequencies. However, females tended slightly more toward the excellence management perspective, while males tended slightly more toward the scientific management perspective. All five perspectives were evident in African American and white public managers at the same relative frequencies. These facts suggest the leadership perspectives model applies regardless of the gender or race of the person engaging in leadership. Functional Incongruence. The data reveal the functional area of government in which public managers operate may influence leadership perspectives.Public managers in the public safety and justice function tend toward the first three perspectives in the hierarchy: scientific management, excellence management, and values leadership. Public managers in the government support, direction, and finance function revealed all but the trust culture leadership perspective. Public managers in human services and education, economic regulations, and public works reflected all five leadership perspectives, although they tended toward the lower-order perspectives. Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership 583Table 1 Summary of Hits Within Each Perspective By Leadership Elements and Operational Categories Leadership perspective Operational categories Leadership elements Scientific management Ensure efficient use of resources to ensure group activity is controlled and predictable Ensure verifiably optimal productivity and resource allocation Measuring, appraising, and rewarding individual performance Organizing (to include such things as budgeting and staffing) Planning (to include such things as coordination and reporting) Incentivization Control Direction Implementation description Tools and behavior Approaches to followersTotal Excellence management Implementation description Tools and behavior Approaches to followers Total Values leadership Implementation description Tools and behavior Approaches to followers Total Trust cultural leadership Implementation description Tools and behavior Approaches to followers Total Whole soul leadership Implementation description Tools a nd behavior Approaches to followers Number of hits Foster continuous process-improvement environment for increased service and productivity levels Transform the environment and perceptions of followers to encourage innovation, high quality products, and xcellent services Focusing on process improvement Listening actively Being accessible (to include such things as managing by walking around and open-door policies) Motivation Engaging people in problem definition and solution Expressing common courtesy and respect Help individuals become proactive contributors to group action based on shared values and agreed upon goals Encourage high organizational performance and self-led followers Setting and enforcing values Visioning Focusing communication around the vision Values prioritization Teaching and coaching Empowering (fostering ownership)Ensure cultures conducive to mutual trust and unified collective action Prioritization of mutual cultural values and organizational conduct in terms of those values Creating and maintaining culture through visioning Sharing governance Measuring, appraising, and rewarding group performance Trust Team building Fostering a shared culture Relate to individuals such that concern for the whole person is paramount in raising each other to higher levels of awareness and action Best in people is liberated in a context of continuous improvement of self, culture, and service delivery Developing and enabling individual wholeness in a ommunity (team) context Fostering an intelligent organization Setting moral standards Inspiration Liberating followers to build community and promote stewardship Modeling a service orientation Total 584 Public Administration Review †¢ September/October 2004, Vol. 64, No. 5 Percent for Percent for element category 39 24 57 54 64 15 15 74 342 11 7 17 16 19 4 4 22 100 18 10 38 25 6 21 14 3 31 9 59 15 13 183 5 32 8 7 100 22 59 17 35 19 81 44 15 61 26 340 10 6 24 13 4 18 8 100 16 7 15 28 23 37 24 77 18 238 6 12 10 16 10 32 8 100 28 12 19 8 20 36 55 51 14 17 240 8 15 23 21 6 7 100 18 51 30 48 28 42 30 13 37 50 0 46 34 Discussion: Implications for Public Administration The leadership perspectives model posited in this study emerges as a valid way to test both the descriptive and prescriptive potential of the perspectival research approach and helps to frame a more comprehensive view of leadership. It is descriptive in the sense that it defines and explores how one may view leadership and positions that perspective into an overarching leadership model. To some, leadership is scientific management, but that perspective may not be as encompassing (as complete a description of the phenomenon) as another perspective.The section of the model from values leadership to whole-soul leadership describes leadership in a more refined manner (and more in line with contemporary literature on leadership, such as emotional intelligence), with whole-soul leadership perhaps being the better overall descriptio n of what transcendent leadership looks like. The model is prescriptive in the sense that it explains which activities, tools, approaches, and philosophies are required to be effective or successful within each perspective. This research suggests that in order to fully understand what leadership is, we have to take into account that some f what we call leadership is often encompassed and transcended by other, more enlightening conceptions. The more enlightened we become in terms of transcending leadership elements, the more able we are to see leadership as distinct from what contemporary literature would distinguish as management. Burns (1978) refused to use the term â€Å"management. † Instead, he used the term â€Å"transactional leadership† to distinguish lower-order organizational technologies from the ideas of higher-order leadership, which he termed â€Å"transforming leadership. † This model adds new light (and support) for why Burns may have chosen to us e eadership to describe his more managerial descriptions of organizational activities, in that some do view management as leadership. However, we are able to understand through this model that some perspectives of what we do are not leadership at all, but rather management—perhaps good management, but management only. In other words, everything we call leadership may not actually conform to the distinctive technologies of leadership. This leadership perspectives model allows public administrators to more easily recognize their day-to-day leadership (and management) efforts and to see those efforts in broader, more encompassing ways.The research and findings based on the model can influence public administration and the individual public administrator by (1) growing their understanding of leadership, (2) helping to refine public administrators’ roles and recognize that their measures of success in these roles will reflect activities consistent with their leadership pers pective, and (3) reshaping the professional training of public administrators. Growing One’s Understanding of Leadership This research suggests that one’s understanding of leadership depends on the perspective that one brings to the question.The perspectival approach to leadership assumes it is possible to expand and grow one’s understanding of leadership, even to the point of realizing what one thought was leadership may more accurately be called management or, as Burns put it, transactional leadership. It does not assume one must necessarily move from one perspective to another, but it does suggest that movement can and does occur. Interview subjects reflected a sincere and reflective approach to leadership, which they felt comfortably fit their views of how they interact with other people and how other people interact with them. These were not xpressions of leadership styles (that is, calculated activities to achieve some specific goal or achieve a particular agenda depending on the situation or follower maturity). Rather, the perspective a person holds defines (1) the truth to them about leadership, (2) the leader’s job, (3) how one analyzes the organization, (4) how one measures success in the leadership activity, and (5) how they view followership. The leadership perspective is the umbrella under which different leadership styles may be pursued or expressed (Hersey and Blanchard 1979). Leadership perspectives, therefore, are not leadership styles to be changed willy-nilly.Rather, leadership perspectives are paradigms and worldviews (leadership philosophies) that need not necessarily change over a lifetime, but may be grown and changed through concerted training efforts, life experiences, and learning opportunities. One interviewee in the public library system suggested the things she did and believed as a first-line manager were totally different than the things she does and believes now as a senior executive. She said that wh at got her to her current position was no longer effective where she currently sits in the organization.As she progressed through different levels of the organization, she also progressed through different perspectives of what leadership meant to her and how she practiced it as a public administrator. Redefining and Refining the Roles of Public Administrators Just as leadership can be viewed in multiple ways, so can the roles of the public administrator. This research reinforces the idea that the perspective of leadership that public administrators accept (implicitly or explicitly) determines their actions and how they measure the relative success or failure of those actions. Therefore, the leadership erspectives within which public administrators operate most likely influences the roles they choose to play. Public administrators who sit squarely in the scientific management perspective accept that the traditional public administration principles of efficiency and effecDifferent Per spectives on the Practice of Leadership 585 tiveness and the activities summarized by POSDCORB fully explain the purposes and processes of their work. To them, technical managerial skill and scientific, reasoned precision must be the purview of public administration without the pressures of political activity, which â€Å"rightly† belong to politicians.Public administrators holding to the excellence management perspective add an emphasis on process improvement and stakeholder involvement to discover and resolve potential problems in efficient and effective processes. These first two perspectives, scientific management and excellence management, focus on the administrative side of the classic public administration dichotomy. Together, they ground the traditional measures of success for public administrators, which the leadership perspectives model suggests may actually be based on transactional management ideas— not leadership at all.However, as we have seen, there are those who claim more for the profession of public administration than the technical and predictable. Many say that the politics–administration dichotomy is no longer relevant, if it ever was. These public administration leaders bring a values perspective to the work they do and recognize their potentially influential place in society (Marini 1971; Waldo 1971; Frederickson 1997). Some focus on the societal impact they can make. Others focus on the organizational impact they can make. Others find meaning in creating great public administrators one by one, either by teaching, mentoring, r going about their public-sector jobs in inspiring ways. These views of public administration may fit more comfortably with the philosophies of higher-order leadership perspectives. No wonder, then, there are still disagreements within the field as to its proper role and stance in society: There are public administrators who honestly measure success and implement leadership from dramatically dif ferent leadership mindsets. They use different tools and engage in behavior and approaches toward others very differently. These perspectives also guide how they view the work of other public administrators, always gauging the success or ailure or the appropriateness of another’s work based on how they conceive of leadership in public administration. Not only does this sometimes cause confusion and frustration within public organizations, where public servants are doing the day-to-day work of government, but it also adds to the confusion and frustration in debates about the field itself. Perhaps these debates might better focus on the perspectives of leadership among public administrators that dictate their values, goals, and behavior more so than the academically defined roles that public administrators are said to play.The perspectival approach to leadership, therefore, may encompass a way to analyze the field of public administration itself. 586 Public Administration Revie w †¢ September/October 2004, Vol. 64, No. 5 Some public administrators who hold to lower-order leadership perspectives may never see a reason to progress through different perspectives. The research findings in this study conclude, however, that there are perspectives of leadership that encompass and transcend lower-order perspectives, that growth and progression is evident in the ways people conceive of leadership, and that moving to igher-order perspectives increases a public administrator’s capacity to cope with increasingly complex issues, organizations, and relationships. Hence, there are ways of conceiving of leadership in public administration that transcend and encompass more limiting perspectives. This translates to public administrators who seem more organizationally sophisticated and emotionally intelligent, as well as more attuned to the personal or individual issues of their jobs. They deal more with people, public issues, and policies (both within the organ izations and outside it) and are able to facilitate more success in an increasingly omplex world. The perspectival approach to leadership also points to a clearer way to understand the different measures of public administration success. The hierarchical nature of the leadership perspectives model suggests the role of public administrators encompasses the technical implementer and skilled mediator roles, but transcends them as well. It suggests that public administrators may rightly play a more facilitative, policy-making, and collaborative role—roles that are more in line with higher-order leadership perspectives—and those roles may be more appropriate (if not necessarily more effective) roles in general.Shaping Professional Training, MPA Curricula Designs, and the â€Å"Oughts† of Public Administration Understanding leadership perspectives as they are applied to the work of public administration can be used not only to refine (and redefine) the field, but also to provide a foundation for training new public administrators. As important as the technical and traditional management skills of public administration are, there is also a need to focus on the recently recognized skills and perspectives of leadership such as relationship building, inspiration, culture creation, values change, creativity, and flexibility.If such a focus is neglected in the training and work of public administration, the field may never get past the continual debates about its legitimacy, usefulness, and place in government and society. In today’s organizational climate, where technology and information are expanding rapidly, along with the knowledge base and professional and personal requirements of the workforce, higher-order leadership perspectives and the public administration roles associated with them may indeed be more effective. Public administrators are often in a better position to suggest new programs and new directions or government. Higher-order mind sets assume, or at least allow for, this function as a part of doing leadership in public administration. The leadership perspectives model helps to redefine the field to focus on public service as an opportunity to engage in leadership within public organizations. It supports our continual efforts to teach others to seek the highest ideals of public service, and thereby to leave to citizens a legacy of trust, integrity, and responsibility, as well as high-quality service delivery and accountability. This implies there are approaches to public administration that hould be adopted over others (such as community building, value shaping, visioning, and stewardship). It implies there are approaches to public administration that are more encompassing and transcendent than others. The research describes what leadership looks like in the work of public administration, emphasizing that the work within public organizations influences the work of public organizations. Public administrat ors can, therefore, better understand their work as leaders inside the organization— not just middle managers, but middle leaders as well (G. Fairholm 2001; M. Fairholm 2002). Remember the one ublic manager who â€Å"jumped right into management,† but then realized he had to start â€Å"from scratch all over focusing on the ‘leadership piece’ because the office still did not function well. † Well-functioning offices are key to welldelivered services and good government. Another public administrator explained that â€Å"leaders need to be modeling behavior, what you want from people you must model. If you want to have a certain type of communication from others you must communicate that way. If you want people to develop people, you must develop people. You must model the work ethic; do what is required o help. I believe in having respect for the position one holds, but I also believe in equality. You need to work to build a community. † This perspective outlines a kind of organizational work that influences how both the internal and external mission of the organization is carried out. The leadership perspectives model clarifies leadership as distinct from discretion or mere uses or abuses of authority. The different perspectives of leadership make the work of public administration look and feel different depending on the different mind sets public managers hold from which they view their craft.These perspectives prescribe how public administration ought to be. Indeed, the â€Å"oughts† of public administration are shaped by the perspective of leadership that one holds. What the leadership perspectives model also offers, however, is that not all perspectives are equal in application. Some perspectives are more encompassing and transcendent than others—that is, some are more operationally useful today than others. Recognizing this potential measure of our work should influence how this work is taught and how individuals are trained.Current (and past) master of public administration programs still teach mostly management skills and techniques. Often programs add the word â€Å"strategic† to the planning function to give it a top-box orientation, but it is still focused on institutional planning and numbers, not values. A course on managerial leadership is emblematic of this approach, and it is not sufficiently comprehensive. MPA curricula and professional development programs would benefit from discussing the descriptions of leadership perspectives and the type of public administration consistent with those descriptions. They should train specific skills, ompetencies, and technologies that the different perspectives demand, including emotional intelligence or other higher-order concepts about values, relationships, and dealing with stakeholders at the emotional level. MPA programs should include leadership specialties or include leadership as a core competency with courses to rei nforce it. The leadership perspectives model itself offers fundamental skills and approaches that can be used as a framework to shape a training and development program or even as part of an MPA curriculum. For example, a five-day leadership training program might use the perspectives to outline each day’s activities.Each day would include a section on implementing leadership from that perspective, coupled with skills-development activities for the leadership elements within the â€Å"tools and behavior† and â€Å"approaches to followers† categories. Each day might then end with the implications for public administration from that perspective. Table 2 outlines such a training design. These curricula and programs should recognize some of the more normative issues about these perspectives and devote attention to answering the questions about how public administration should be thought about and practiced in encompassing and transcendent ways. ConclusionAs public a dministration begins to include discussions of leadership more explicitly in its work and training, the field will not only better understand its legitimate role in society, it will also produce men and women who are competently and confidently prepared to do the work of public leaders. The task of public administration today—both intellectually and operationally—is to better understand these perspectives and ensure the field is adopting the most appropriate and encompassing approaches to and measures of our work in the societies we live in, the organizations we work in, and the individual lives we influence.Overall, the perspectival approach to understanding leadership is a credible and valid way to better understand how people can operate in this complex yet intensely personal world within which public administration finds itself staunchly entrenched. Different Perspectives on the Practice of Leadership 587 Table 2 Generic Leadership Training Program for Public Admin istrators General daily format Day 1: Leadership as Scientific Management Implementation description—what leadership looks like Day 2: Leadership as Excellence Management Implementation description—what leadership looks like Skills development †¢ Measuring, ppraising, and rewarding individual performance †¢ Organizing (to include such things as budgeting and staffing) †¢ Planning (to include such things as coordination and reporting) †¢ Focusing on process †¢ Setting and improvement enforcing values †¢ Listening actively †¢ Visioning †¢ Being accessible (to †¢ Focusing include such things communication as managing by around the vision walking around and open-door policies) †¢ Creating and †¢ Developing and maintaining culture enabling individual through visioning wholeness in a community (team) †¢ Sharing governance context †¢ Measuring, †¢ Fostering an appraising, and intelligent ewarding group orga nization performance †¢ Setting moral standards Follower relationship concepts †¢ Incentivization †¢ Control †¢ Direction †¢ Values prioritization †¢ Motivation †¢ Engaging people in †¢ Teaching and coaching problem definition and solution †¢ Empowering †¢ Expressing common (fostering courtesy and respect ownership) †¢ Trust †¢ Team building †¢ Fostering a shared culture Conclusion Public administration practice—Each day discuss what this leadership perspective tells me about my work. Introduction Day 3: Values Leadership Day 4: Trust Cultural Leadership Day 5: Whole-Soul Leadership Implementation description—what eadership looks like Implementation description—what leadership looks like Implementation description—what leadership looks like †¢ Inspiration †¢ Liberating followers to build community and promote stewardship †¢ Modeling a service orientation Notes References 1. Th is debate centers on some general ideas. Management embodies the more reasoned, scientific, position-based approach to organizational engagement, such as setting and maintaining organizational structure, dealing with complexity, solving organizational problems, making transactions between leader and those being led, and ensuring control and prediction.Leadership embodies the more relationship-based, values-laden, developmental aspect of the work we do in organizations, such as changing organizational contexts, transforming leader and those being led, setting and aligning organizational vision with group action, and ensuring individuals a voice so that they can grow into productive, proactive, and self-led followers (Burns 1978; Kotter 1990; Taylor 1915; Urwick 1944; Zaleznik 1977; Ackerman 1985; Rosener 1990). 2. Examples of these universities and programs include the Farber Center for Civic Leadership at the University of South Dakota, the Center for Excellence in Municipal Managem ent t The George Washington University, the Management Institute at the University of Richmond, and several programs at Harvard, Stanford, and the University of Chicago. Washington, DC has also devoted considerable resources to building and sustaining a public–private partnership with the academic, business, and philanthropic communities to focus on developing management and leadership capabilities in its midand senior-level management tier, though budget cuts now threaten the endeavor (CEMM 1996). See also Wimberley and Rubens (2002) for more on leadership development programs through partnerships.Ackerman, Leonard. 1985. Leadership vs. Managership. Leadership and Organization Development Journal 6(2): 17–19. Barker, Joel. 1992. Future Edge: Discovering the New Paradigms of Success. New York: W. Morrow. 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